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Banned under EU Regulation 358/2014 due to lack of safety data and structural relatedness to more potent endocrine-active parabens.

Besides releasing formaldehyde, bronopol can react with secondary or tertiary amines (triethanolamine, DEA, TEA) in the same formulation to form N-nitrosamines, several of which are classified by IARC as probable human carcinogens.

NTP reasonably anticipates BHA to be a human carcinogen based on rodent forestomach tumours.

Butylparaben showed the strongest binding affinity to estrogen receptors among the parabens tested by Routledge et al.

Among the most common formaldehyde releasers associated with allergic contact dermatitis in North American Contact Dermatitis Group patch-test data.

Formaldehyde is classified by IARC as a Group 1 human carcinogen (causally linked to nasopharyngeal cancer and leukaemia).

Ethylparaben exhibits weak estrogenic activity in yeast and mammalian cell assays and has been detected in human urine and breast tissue samples.

Classified by IARC as Group 1, causally associated with nasopharyngeal cancer and myeloid leukaemia.

Listed as a common cause of allergic contact dermatitis in multiple patch-test registries.

The EU banned isobutylparaben in all cosmetic products in 2014 due to insufficient safety data combined with structural similarity to known endocrine-active parabens.

Banned in all EU cosmetic products in 2014 alongside isobutyl-, phenyl-, pentyl-, and benzylparaben because safety margins could not be established.

Blamed for epidemic contact allergy rates through the 1980s.

Banned in EU leave-on cosmetics in 2005 and in rinse-off products in 2007 following a European epidemic of severe contact allergy during the late 1990s.

Named ACDS Allergen of the Year 2013 due to an epidemic of allergic contact dermatitis following its expanded use.

Parabens mimic estrogen by binding to estrogen receptors, though methylparaben binds more weakly than longer-chain parabens.

By design, releases formaldehyde, a Group 1 human carcinogen.

Propylparaben is classified as a substance of concern by the European Food Safety Authority, which reduced its acceptable daily intake to zero in 2004 due to effects on male rat reproductive organs.

Named the American Contact Dermatitis Society Allergen of the Year in 2005 as the single most common cause of preservative-related contact dermatitis.

Once dissolved, sodium methylparaben dissociates into methylparaben and shares the same endocrine-disruption concerns.

In vitro data suggest BHT is a weak endocrine disruptor.

France’s ANSM issued a safety warning in 2008 against chlorphenesin in products for children under two after reports of adverse reactions including respiratory depression in infants.

Rising cause of contact dermatitis recognised by the North American Contact Dermatitis Group.

Although positioned as safer than traditional formaldehyde releasers, laboratory studies confirm it releases free formaldehyde in aqueous solution, particularly below pH 6.

Generally considered one of the safer preservatives, capped in the EU at 1%.

Nitromusks are persistent, bioaccumulative organic pollutants.

Classified as a Substance of Very High Concern under REACH due to its vPvB (very persistent, very bioaccumulative) properties.

The Environmental Working Group and International Fragrance Association have documented that a single “fragrance” listing may contain 50 to 300 individual chemicals, many unregulated by cosmetics law.

Identified by the EU as one of 26 fragrance allergens requiring label disclosure due to contact sensitisation.

Galaxolide is persistent, has been detected in surface water, sediment, fish, and human blood and breast milk.

Classified as very persistent and very bioaccumulative by the Nordic Council assessments.

Listed on California Proposition 65 as a chemical known to cause cancer since 2012, based on NTP rodent studies.

IARC classifies DEA as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) based on rodent liver and kidney tumours.

Degrades in the environment to nonylphenol, a well-documented estrogenic endocrine disruptor.

Like DEA, TEA can react with nitrosating agents to form N-nitrosotriethanolamine, a suspected carcinogen.

Ethoxylation introduces 1,4-dioxane contamination risk.

Comparable to SLS in skin-barrier disruption and sensitisation risk, especially with extended contact.

Named ACDS Allergen of the Year 2004.

Strong skin irritant at working concentrations.

Ethoxylation creates the potential for 1,4-dioxane and ethylene oxide contamination.

SCS contains around 50% SLS by composition, so the skin-irritation profile is very similar to SLS.

Because SLES is produced via ethoxylation, it can carry 1,4-dioxane contamination, a probable human carcinogen per US EPA.

SLS is a well-documented skin irritant used in dermatology research as a positive control for irritant contact dermatitis.

Multiple rodent studies (Schlumpf et al.

The EU SCCS 2021 opinion concluded homosalate at current use levels (up to 10% in leave-on products) is not safe due to endocrine activity, and recommended lowering the limit to 0.

Octinoxate demonstrates estrogenic activity in rodent uterotrophic assays and has been detected in human urine and breast milk.

A 2021 study by Downs et al.

A 2020 FDA MUsT study published in JAMA showed oxybenzone is systemically absorbed at levels far exceeding the 0.

Avobenzone is photounstable on its own and degrades into arylglyoxals and benzils that may generate reactive oxygen species on skin.

Demonstrated systemic absorption above FDA safety-review thresholds in the 2020 MUsT study.

Classified as PBT (persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic) and vPvB under REACH, and as a reproductive toxicant category 2 in the EU CLP regulation.

Classified as vPvB under REACH.

Because cyclomethicone mixtures include D4 (reproductive toxicant, vPvB) and D5 (vPvB) by default, the same EU restrictions apply.

D5 is classified by ECHA as very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB) under REACH.

Dimethicone itself has low acute toxicity and is generally considered inert, but it is not biodegradable and contributes to aquatic persistence.

Low acute toxicity and low skin-irritation potential.

Classified as a reproductive toxicant category 1B in the EU and listed on the REACH Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern.

DEHP is classified by IARC as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) and is a known anti-androgen.

DBP is classified by the EU as a reproductive toxicant category 1B (presumed human reproductive toxicant).

DiBP is classified in the EU as a reproductive toxicant category 1B and is on the REACH SVHC list.

DEP is detected in nearly 100% of urine samples in US biomonitoring surveys, reflecting near-universal exposure.

DIDP shows weaker anti-androgenic activity than short-chain phthalates but is restricted in the EU above 0.

California Proposition 65 lists DINP as a substance known to cause cancer based on liver tumours in rodents, though the mechanism may be species-specific.

DMP is less estrogenic than longer-chain phthalates in vitro but is still a phthalate with shared concerns about reproductive and developmental effects.

Classified by US EPA as a likely human carcinogen and by IARC as Group 2B.

IARC Group 1 human carcinogen, causally linked to acute myeloid leukaemia.

Classified by IARC as Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans) with sufficient evidence for breast cancer and lymphohaematopoietic cancers.

Well-documented neurotoxin at occupational exposures; chronic inhalation causes cognitive impairment and hearing loss (NIOSH and ATSDR reviews).

Identified by the American Contact Dermatitis Society as the 2018 Allergen of the Year due to rising contact dermatitis rates.

Lower sensitisation rate than propylene glycol but still capable of enhancing penetration of other ingredients, which can amplify problems if the formula contains other concerning compounds.

Contains bromine as part of the molecule; can cause contact sensitisation and photosensitivity in some individuals.

Classified as restricted by FDA for ingestion; approved only for limited external use and in mouthwash at low levels.

Animal studies report tumour induction at high oral doses; some regulators consider existing safety margins adequate, others disagree.

A 2021 California OEHHA review of 27 studies concluded synthetic food dyes, including Red 40, can cause or worsen neurobehavioral effects in some children, including attention deficits.

Associated with hyperactivity and attention effects in children per a 2007 Lancet study by McCann et al.

Part of the Southampton six dyes linked to hyperactivity in McCann et al.

Known respiratory sensitiser; occupational asthma cases are documented among cleaning workers.

Banned by FDA in consumer antiseptic soaps in 2016 alongside triclosan.

The US FDA banned triclosan in over-the-counter consumer antiseptic soaps in 2016 after industry failed to demonstrate that triclosan provided benefit over plain soap and water.

Same environmental persistence concerns as tetrasodium EDTA.

EDTA is highly persistent in the environment and can remobilise heavy metals in wastewater treatment and sediment.

Produced via ethoxylation, so the ingredient and final product may contain 1,4-dioxane and ethylene oxide as contaminants.

Ethoxylation contamination with 1,4-dioxane and ethylene oxide is the primary concern.

Ethoxylation (reaction with ethylene oxide) can leave residues of 1,4-dioxane and ethylene oxide, both classified by the US EPA as probable human carcinogens.

Despite its naturally derived origins, the ethoxylation step introduces potential 1,4-dioxane and ethylene oxide contamination.

Small-molecule PEGs can penetrate compromised or damaged skin and may enhance penetration of other ingredients.

Declared a toxic substance by Environment Canada in 2010.

Studies consistently show BPF exerts estrogenic activity comparable to BPA.

Research by Rochester and Bolden (2015, EHP) reviewed 32 studies and found BPS has comparable endocrine-disrupting potency to BPA.

Classified by IARC as Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans) due to occupational exposure data linking it to skin and lung cancer.

Banned in cosmetics in the EU since 2001 (allowed only in professional hair dye and nail products).

Lead is a known neurotoxin with no safe exposure level identified by the CDC.

All PFAS share extreme environmental persistence and widespread human biomonitoring detection.

PFAS as a class are extremely persistent (forever chemicals) and have been detected in drinking water, blood, and breast milk worldwide.

ATSDR and multiple toxicology reviews describe thyroid-disrupting effects in animal studies, interfering with iodide uptake.

Aluminium salts interact with estrogen receptors in vitro and have been detected in breast tissue (Darbre et al.

IARC classifies untreated or mildly treated mineral oils as Group 1 carcinogens (occupational exposure) and highly refined oils as Group 3.

Same as mineral oil: potential PAH and MOAH contamination.

Unrefined or poorly refined petrolatum can contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are known human carcinogens per IARC.

A 2012 NTP study found that retinyl palmitate combined with sunlight accelerated skin tumour development in mice.

IARC classifies perineal use of talc-based body powder as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic), and talc containing asbestiform fibres as Group 1.